Background: Nutritional expectations have been shown to influence exercise performance via placebo and nocebo effects. The present study aimed to evaluate performance-enhancement expectations for coffee and energy drinks using the Stanford Expectations of Treatment Scale. Methods: A total of 402 participants (48.5% male) with an average exercise history of 4.53 years, engaging in average physical activity 3.91 times per week, were included in the study. Data collection was conducted through the Qualtrics platform. Results: Participants exhibited significantly higher positive expectations for coffee compared to energy drinks (p = 0.002), whereas negative expectations were more pronounced for energy drinks than for coffee (p < 0.001). Males and individuals engaging in anaerobic exercise expressed more positive expectations for energy drinks than females and those participating in aerobic or mixed exercise regimens. Additionally, high-frequency exercisers (≥4 sessions per week) reported greater positive expectations for both beverages and fewer negative expectations for coffee than low-frequency exercisers (≤3 sessions per week). Correlational analyses revealed weak but significant associations between expectations and variables such as exercise history, frequency, intensity, and age. Conclusions: The findings suggest that coffee is perceived as a more effective performance enhancer and exhibits greater placebo-inducing potential than energy drinks, which may elicit stronger nocebo effects. These group-specific perceptions should be considered by trainers, coaches, and researchers when addressing placebo–nocebo mechanisms in the context of sports and exercise.

Superstitious behavior is highly prevalent in sports, providing athletes control over anxiety, psychological comfort, and perceived performance benefits. The first literature review on the topic was published in 2016. Since then, new research has expanded the knowledge in the area from cultural, psychological, and situational perspectives. Following the PRISMA guidelines, this systematic review aimed to update and expand the first review on the area. PubMed and Google Scholar articles were scrutinized after the original 2016 review (from 2016 to 2024), and Scopus, Web of Science, and ProQuest databases (not included in the original review) were examined without a time limit. We found 27 eligible studies, including 26 observational and one experimental study. We used the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) to assess study quality. The included studies stem from India, Canada, Taiwan, Greece, Türkiye, Ghana, Hungary, Poland, Ukraine, the UK, the USA, Italy, Serbia, and Congo. Data extracted included age, gender, sport type, athletic level, cultural influences, psychological traits, and validated measurement tools. Superstitions in sports remain widespread. About 55.1% of athletes reported engaging in at least one superstition, and over 90% reported sport-specific rituals. Younger athletes exhibited higher levels of superstition than older ones. Gender differences were nuanced and context-dependent. Team and elite athletes relied more on superstitions than individual sports and amateurs. Cultural practices strongly influence superstitions, which often serve as coping mechanisms. They reduce anxiety and improve performance through placebo-like effects. However, excessive reliance on them can lead to burnout. This review confirms the enduring relevance of superstitions in sports. It emphasizes their cultural, psychological, and situational roles. The findings highlight gaps in understanding the placebo effects and long-term impacts of superstitious behaviors. Multidisciplinary research is needed to deepen insights into this complex phenomenon.

This study employed exercise dependence and four-phase models to investigate the relationship between passion for exercise and the risk of exercise addiction (REA) among practitioners of aerobic, anaerobic, and CrossFit exercises. Participants (N = 424; 60.8% female; meanage = 38.29 ± 9.71 years) were recruited from fitness centers and social media in Hungary. The sample included 234 CrossFit, 126 aerobic (e.g., running, cycling, swimming), and 64 anaerobic (bodybuilding) exercisers. Data were collected online on Qualtrics, which included demographic questions, the Exercise Addiction Inventory-3, and the Passion Scale-8. CrossFit participants exhibited the highest exercise frequency and intensity, with a greater prevalence of REA (25.2%) compared to the anaerobic (15.6%) and aerobic (14.3%) groups. Cross Fitters also scored higher on salience, withdrawal symptoms, and passion. However, group differences in absolute REA scores vanished after controlling for passion and exercise characteristics. Gender differences emerged, with females showing a stronger affective connection to exercise and higher withdrawal symptoms. Passion was strongly correlated with REA (r = 0.55) and accounted for 28% of the variance in it. Further research is needed to distinguish between passion-driven exercise and addiction.