Long non-coding RNAs, often referred to as lncRNAs, consist of RNA molecules that contain more than 200 nt and can be translated into small proteins under various circumstances. Extensive research has consistently demonstrated that long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and miRNAs play a crucial role in various biological processes and disease mechanisms, including those associated with viral infections. Although numerous mechanisms are involved in miRNA and lncRNA-mediated gene regulation, such as transcriptional and translational regulation, protein modification, and the formation of RNA-protein complexes. This manuscript demonstrates the new therapeutic roles of long ncRNA (lncRNA) and microRNA (miRNA) in the treatment of HIV-1 infection. It shows that these non-coding RNAs have decisive roles in controlling the viral replication, latency, and host-virus interactions in the epigenetic, transcriptional and post-transcriptional processes. Select lncRNAs like MALAT1, NEAT1, NRON, and GAS5 are demonstrated to increase or block HIV transcription and persistence, whereas miRNAs like miRNA-155, miRNA-146a and miRNA-191- 5p regulate immune reactions and viral replication by acting on both viral RNA and host dynamics. The article also highlights that certain disadvantage of lncRNA such as delivery efficiency, stability of RNA therapeutics, potential off-target effects, and the difficulty of targeting HIV reservoirs.

Modern technological advances have revealed that the lungs, once believed to be sterile, actually harbor a diverse community of microorganisms. A normal lung microbiome possesses its own characteristic microbial community, although it is largely influenced by the microbiota of the upper respiratory tract. The lung microbiome is distinct from that of other organs due to unique selective pressures, including mechanical clearance through coughing, the activity of pulmonary macrophages, the coordinated movement of respiratory cilia, and the antimicrobial effects of alveolar surfactant. Although recent research has largely concentrated on the pulmonary bacteriome, comparatively little attention has been given to the lung mycobiome and virome. Various databases such as PubMed, Scopus/Web of Science, Google Scholar, and Medline for literature research up to December 2025. This updated review discusses the origin, composition, and functional significance of the lung microbiome, with particular emphasis on its protective role against respiratory pathogens through host–microbe interactions. The review primarily focuses on respiratory disorders such as asthma, along with a range of viral and bacterial infections. Special attention is given to current evidence on how lung microbial communities influence susceptibility to pulmonary infections, as well as how the lung microbiome contributes to host defense during infectious conditions.