Low-cost air temperature sensors are an emerging theme in environmental monitoring. These sensors offer the advantage of making microclimate monitoring feasible due to their affordability. However, they are limited by the quality of the data they provide; in many cases, they have been reported to have presented errors in the sensor readings. These errors have been shown to improve after calibration was applied. The lack of a comprehensive understanding of the available calibration techniques, models, and sensor types has led to studies presenting heterogeneity in models and techniques alongside different performance metrics. To address this gap, this study conducted a systematic review following the PRISMA guidelines, reviewing studies from 2015 to 2024 across the databases Web of Science and Scopus, alongside the search engine Google Scholar. The aim was to identify the calibration techniques and models, the commercially available low-cost air temperature sensors used, the performance metrics utilised, and the calibration settings. The findings presented three main categories of calibration models utilised in the collected studies: linear, polynomial, and machine learning. Twenty-two commercially available low-cost sensors were identified, with the DHT22 sensor being the most utilised. Indoor settings were identified as the most preferred for conducting calibrations. Key challenges included limitations in reported results for calibration by the studies, the use of different performance metrics across studies, insufficient studies conducting calibration, and the diversity in sensor types utilised.

Although herbicides are essential for global agriculture and controlling weeds, they impact soil microbial communities and CO2 emissions. However, the effects of herbicides, tillage systems, and nitrogen fertilisation on CO2 emissions under different environmental conditions are poorly understood. This review explores how various agricultural practices and inputs affect CO2 emissions and addresses the impact of pest-management strategies, tillage systems, and nitrogen fertiliser usage on CO2 emissions using multiple databases. Key findings indicate that both increased and decreased tendencies in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions were observed, depending on the herbicide type, dose, soil properties, and application methods. Several studies reported a positive correlation between CO2 emissions and increased agricultural production. Combining herbicides with other methods effectively controls emissions with minimal chemical inputs. Conservation practices like no-tillage were more effective than conventional tillage in mitigating carbon emissions. Integrated pest management, conservation tillage, and nitrogen fertiliser rate optimisation were shown to reduce herbicide use and soil greenhouse gas emissions. Fertilisers are similarly important; depending on the dosage, they may support yield or harm the soil. Fertiliser benefits are contingent on appropriate management practices for specific soil and field conditions. This review highlights the significance of adaptable management strategies that consider local environmental conditions and can guide future studies and inform policies to promote sustainable agriculture practices worldwide.

Agriculture must balance productivity with greenhouse gas emissions, biodiversity, and resource concerns. This study examined how tillage (conventional, CT; minimum, MT), nitrogen fertilisation (0–221 kg N ha⁻¹), and herbicide rates (0–100%) interactively affected soil CO2 emissions, vegetation vigour, and weed diversity in maize production during 2022. A factorial experiment was conducted on a 1 ha with 40 plots monitored soil temperature, moisture, penetration resistance, normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI), weed diversity (Simpson’s Index), and CO2 emissions (closed-chamber method). Minimum tillage increased soil water retention (9.3 ± 6.5% vs. 5.4 ± 4.3%), soil temperature (28.0 ± 1.5), and compaction (0.6 ± 0.3 vs. 0.1 ± 0.0 MPa), while enhancing weed diversity (0.53–0.80 vs. 0.38–0.67). MT produced higher CO2 emissions than CT, especially at 147 kg N ha⁻¹ (49.9 ± 15.7 vs. 29.1 ± 11.6 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹), peaking under MT-147 kg N ha⁻¹-H75 (79.4 ± 1.2 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹). NDVI responses varied between tillage systems; under CT, vegetation vigour peaked at 75% herbicide application, while under MT vegetation was more responsive to nitrogen and more sensitive to herbicide, highlighting nitrogen × herbicide interaction trade-offs. Overall, MT enhanced water conservation and weed diversity but increased short-term CO2 emissions. This study reports first-year, site-specific results from an ongoing multi-year field experiment; therefore, the findings were interpreted as short-term, season-specific responses. This highlights the need for site-specific, climate-smart management that integrates emissions, soil health, biodiversity, and productivity.

Onions (Allium cepa L.) are widely cultivated and consumed vegetable crops around the world. Weed interference is the main limitation to onion production. Onions grow slowly, are short-statured, and are non-branching, which makes them difficult to compete with weeds. The aim of this study was to summarise the literature published between 2020 and 2025 that evaluated the effectiveness of different weed control methods used in onion cultivation using a systematic review following the PRISMA guidelines. Based on the results, pendimethalin and oxyfluorfen were the most used and most effective herbicides. Combining pre- and post-emergence treatments and spraying herbicide mixtures improved weed control efficiency compared with single treatments. Acetolactate synthase (ALS) inhibitors can adversely affect onions and reduce yield, making them unsuitable for use in onion production. Integrated weed management practises, such as combining herbicides with manual weeding and using plant-based extracts, offer a sustainable approach that can reduce reliance on chemicals. Mechanical weed management is not widely adopted in onion production because its application poses numerous challenges. The future direction of weed management should focus on technological advances in mechanical weed control and the development of bioherbicides to reduce reliance on synthetic herbicides.