The primary aim of this study was to explore the influence of abiotic factors on weed development in maize fields, with the goal of informing more effective weed management practices. We focused on identifying key environmental, edaphic, and agricultural variables that contribute to weed infestations, particularly before the application of spring herbicide treatments. Field investigations were conducted from 2018 to 2021 across selected maize-growing regions in Hungary. Over the four-year period, a total of 51 weed species were recorded, with Echinochloa crus-galli, Chenopodium album, Portulaca oleracea, and Hibiscus trionum emerging as the most prevalent taxa. Collectively, these four species accounted for more than half (52%) of the total weed cover. Altogether, the 20 most dominant species contributed 95% of the overall weed coverage. The analysis revealed that weed cover, species richness, and weed diversity were significantly affected by soil properties, nutrient levels, geographic location, and tillage systems. The results confirm that the composition of weed species was influenced by several environmental and management-related factors, including soil parameters, geographical location, annual precipitation, tillage method, and fertilizer application. Environmental factors collectively explained a slightly higher proportion of the variance (13.37%) than farming factors (12.66%) at a 90% significance level. Seasonal dynamics and crop rotation history also played a notable role in species distribution. Nutrient inputs, particularly nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, influenced both species diversity and floristic composition. Deep tillage practices favored the proliferation of perennial species, whereas shallow cultivation tended to promote annual weeds. Overall, the composition of weed vegetation proved to be a valuable indicator of site-specific soil conditions and agricultural practices. These findings underscore the need to tailor weed management strategies to local environmental and soil contexts for sustainable crop production.

This study explores the relationship between abiotic factors, farming practices, and weed growth in winter wheat fields in Eastern Hungary. It examines the order of weed dominance and the influence of soil, environmental, and agricultural variables on weed composition and diversity before herbicide application. The research was conducted across four sub-regions in the Great Hungarian Plain, each with distinct soil, hydrological, and geographical conditions. Between 2018 and 2021, 103 fields were surveyed and weed species cover was recorded using EPPO-based identification and quadrat sampling. Soil properties, environmental conditions, and farming practices were documented through soil analysis, geographical data, and farmer interviews. Statistical analyses were preformed including ANCOVA, redundancy analysis, and Shannon diversity index calculations. The results show that common weed species include Veronica hederifolia, Stellaria media, and Apera spica-venti, with winter annuals dominating. Soil compaction and salinity affected weed diversity, while increased copper and zinc concentrations had minor effects on weed coverage. Farming practices, particularly tillage systems and fertilizer use, had a significant effect on species richness and diversity. Different regional and annual weed distributions were observed, with correlation between certain tillage systems and specific weed species. The results emphasize the need for climate-conscious farming practices, and we recommend prioritising shallow cultivation and deep loosening over ploughing in order to manage weed populations effectively. These insights contribute to sustainable weed management strategies in cereal production.

Since 1988, open stands of Menyanthes trifoliata have disappeared, communities of Carex rostrata have declined, and the Sphagnum-dominated willow carr has expanded. The mire’s central associations include Caricetum rostratae, Salici cinereae–Sphagnetum recurvi sphagnetosum squarrosi, and Calamagrosti–Salicetum cinereae. In the mainly nudum lagg zone, the following communities occur: Bidenti–Polygonetum hydropiperis, Bidenti–Polygonetum hydropiperis urticetosum dioicae, Caricetum acutiformis, Juncetum effusi, Glycerietum maximae, and a community dominated by Poa nemoralis. We recorded 77 vascular plant species, 62 of which were new to the site. Rare species have declined in number: Menyanthes trifoliata and Cicuta virosa are now absent, and of the former eight Sphagnum species, only Sphagnum squarrosum remains. The original Salici cinereae–Sphagnetum recurvi sphagnetosum recurvi subassociation transitioned into Salici cinereae–Sphagnetum recurvi sphagnetosum squarrosi after the mire remained completely dry and peat-moss-free for several years around 2000. Central communities reflect a cool, moderately acidic, oligotrophic environment with low pH and conductivity. In contrast, lagg vegetation indicates warmer, nutrient-rich, less acidic conditions. The mire’s most valuable zone is its central, Sphagnum-rich area, whose preservation depends on a natural water supply maintained by continuous forest cover in the catchment and stable or reduced large game populations.

Orchid pollination is traditionally considered to rely on intact pollinarium transfer by animal vectors. Species lacking a functional viscidium are generally classified as obligately autogamous. In this study, we investigated the reproductive biology of Epipactis bugacensis, a taxon long regarded as strictly self-pollinating. Floral visitor activity was assessed through repeated field observations, and pollinator dependence was tested using a pollinator-exclusion (net-covering) experiment at two Hungarian populations, combined with measurements of fruit set, capsule volume, seed number, and seed density. We documented a previously unreported pollen-transfer mechanism in E. bugacensis, whereby halictid bees fragment pollinia and transfer these fragments in their scopa to neighboring flowers enabling geitonogamous deposition and suggesting the potential for xenogamous pollen transfer. Other visitor taxa showed no evidence of effective pollen transport. Mesh coverage increased fruit set, capsule volume, and seed number, while seed density remained unchanged. Reproductive output declined from basal to apical positions along flowering shoots, revealing strong internal resource-allocation constraints. Overall, E. bugacensis is predominantly self-pollinating but not strictly obligate autogamous, and its reproductive success is governed primarily by microhabitat quality rather than pollinator availability.

Romania joined the UNESCO Convention in 1990. The fortified church of Biertan was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1993, followed by six additional Transylvanian fortified church villages in 1999. An interesting feature of this heritage landscape is that settlements with different demographic and development trajectories share the same World Heritage designation. In our research, we collected demographic and tourism data from these seven municipalities. Subsequently, a standard questionnaire was sent to municipal decision-makers (mayors) in 2023 to map tourism development in their municipalities. The communication activities of the municipalities were analysed using a content analysis method, which was observation-based and based only on online content. In our experience, there is no common strategy to turn this heritage into a tourist attraction; each of the seven municipalities has faced this challenge separately. The main result of the research was to explore how heritage tourism works in municipalities with different demographic, linguistic-cultural heritage and with different levels of management.