Zoltán Alföldi
6505782472
Publications - 17
A Pilot Study of the Effect of Locomotor and Mechanical Loads on Elite Rowers During Competition Days
Publication Name: Sports
Publication Date: 2025-08-01
Volume: 13
Issue: 8
Page Range: Unknown
Description:
(1) Background: Fatigue impacts neuromuscular performance, especially in endurance sports like rowing. The aim is to explore how continuous workload affects explosiveness and fatigue progression. This study examines acute fatigue during repeated race events by assessing vertical jump height, force output, and subjective fatigue over three consecutive days at the 2024 Hungarian National Rowing Championships. (2) Methods: Nine rowers (five women, four men; mean age 20.17 ± 1.73 years) competed in multiple 2000 m races over three days. Lower limb explosiveness was measured via countermovement jump (CMJ) using a Kistler force plate, pre- and post-race. Heart rate data were recorded with Polar Team Pro®. Subjective fatigue was assessed using the ‘Daily Wellness Questionnaire’. (3) Results: We found a significant difference in the pattern of the medians of the force exerted by males during the jump between the results of the Thursday preliminaries (ThuQMe = 13.3) and the second final (ThuF2Me = −75.5). Women showed no notable changes. (4) Conclusion: Repeated high-intensity races induce neuromuscular fatigue in men, reflected in reduced explosiveness and increased subjective fatigue. Future research should incorporate biochemical markers to deepen the understanding of fatigue mechanisms.
Open Access: Yes
Body Mass and Aerobic Capacity are Robust Predictors of the 2000m Ergometer Rowing Performance: A Laboratory Study
Publication Name: International Journal of Kinesiology and Sports Science
Publication Date: 2025-01-01
Volume: 13
Issue: 2
Page Range: 78-85
Description:
Purpose: Predicting performance in sports competitions is a popular topic in research. However, only a few studies exist in rowing sports, which suggest that some anthropometric and performance indices might predict performance in various situations. Methods: This work expands past research by examining the effects of five anthropometric measures, such as body mass index (BMI), height, weight, fat, and muscle, and three performance indicators, such as aerobic capacity, maximum speed, and force, while also considering the training history of 38 elite rowers (Mag e = 16.89 ± 1.85, range 14.7 to 22.6 years, 61% males) participating in a national championship. Results: Apart from BMI, all measures correlated statistically significantly with the 2000m rowing time. A bootstrapped forward multiple regression yielded the best model with only two predictors (R2 =.995), aerobic capacity and body mass, accounting for 99.5% variance in the 2000m rowing time. Conclusions: While the results support previous findings, such robust prediction has not been reported in the literature. We conjecture that the differences from other past works rest with the high-pressure 2000m performance preceding a national championship. If these findings could be replicated, their practical implication is substantial in preparatory training for rowing contests.
Open Access: Yes
Changes in primitive reflexes in older adults and their relationship to mental health indices: An experimental investigation
Publication Name: Experimental Gerontology
Publication Date: 2024-10-15
Volume: 196
Issue: Unknown
Page Range: Unknown
Description:
The reemergence of primitive reflexes (PRs) in older age is related to cognitive impairment. Currently, there are no means to prevent or slow their reappearance, but research evidence exists for their control in children. Therefore, this experiment investigated whether a 16-week special sensorimotor exercise program could benefit older adults and whether the intervention-induced changes (if any) may be associated with various indices of mental health. Of 115 adults over 60, 95 completed the study (mean age = 76.37 ± SD = 7.04 years, 22 % men). The experimental group (n = 38) showed an almost threefold decline in PRs compared to controls. In contrast, the control group (n = 57) exhibited a nearly threefold increase in PRs compared to the intervention group. Cognitive function increased in the experimental but not in the control group. Changes in PRs over the 16-week intervention were positively related to negative mental health indices (hopelessness and perceived stress) and negatively related to well-being. These findings suggest that the here-presented mild sensorimotor exercises could affect older adults' reemerging PRs and that changes in PRs are associated with mental health benefits. These results may open new research avenues toward preventing cognitive and psychological decline in older adults.
Open Access: Yes
Analysis of the Laboratory and In-Competition Characteristics of Adolescent Motocross (MX) Riders: An In Situ Case Study
Publication Name: Applied Sciences Switzerland
Publication Date: 2024-09-01
Volume: 14
Issue: 18
Page Range: Unknown
Description:
Motocross is one of the most popular high-speed motorcycle races, which takes place on a naturally closed track with significant challenges. This study aimed to characterize anthropometric, circulatory, and lower and upper limb muscle properties based on laboratory and race-recorded characteristics. Male competitors (n = 3) aged 14 years (MX) were included in the study. All three boys have national and international experience. Metabolic characteristics (ventilation, oxygen consumption, and carbon dioxide production) and heart rate (HR) were measured in the laboratory while HR and speed were measured while racing. No significant difference was found between the three competitors in terms of HR during the race. In terms of number of sprints (No. sprint) and maximum speed (Speedmax), we found the most successful runner (highest finisher) to have the most sprints and maximum speed. Comparing the metabolic characteristics, it was found that racing was between the respiratory breakpoint (VT1 ) and the respiratory compensation point (RCP), but, in several cases, crossed the anaerobic threshold. While motocross riders are exposed to extreme conditions and high physical demands, in motorsport, victories depend not only on the athlete’s physical abilities but also on several factors such as driving technique, mental effort, equipment efficiency and resistance, race strategy, and team competence.
Open Access: Yes
DOI: 10.3390/app14188232
Psychological Characteristics of Young Motocross (MX) Riders Based on Hungarian Championship Races †
Publication Name: Engineering Proceedings
Publication Date: 2024-01-01
Volume: 79
Issue: 1
Page Range: Unknown
Description:
Motocross (MX) requires physical and psychological fitness, so the performance of the individual is crucial to success. The aim of this study is to describe psychological characteristics measured under competitive conditions among successful adolescent MX riders. Methods: Eight young Hungarian MX riders were analyzed using the Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) model. Results: The pleasure component was lower, while tension and stressors were almost always greater after the race than before, regardless of the result achieved. Conclusion: Further research is needed to ensure the outstanding performance of riders combined with high-quality technical training and psychological preparation.
Open Access: Yes
Physical activity and screen time among hungarian high school students during the COVID-19 pandemic caused distance education period
Publication Name: International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
Publication Date: 2021-12-01
Volume: 18
Issue: 24
Page Range: Unknown
Description:
Background: High school education took place in the form of distance learning during SARS-CoV-2 pandemic worldwide, including Hungary. Decreased physical activity and an increase in inactive behaviours may lead to an increased risk of obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Aim: Our study targeted changes in physical activity (aerobic exercise, muscle strengthening) and screen time in adolescents and young adults during the pandemic. Methods: High school students were interviewed in 66 public schools in 37 Hungarian cities (N = 2508). Survey items on physical activity and screen time were derived from the WHO Health Behaviour of School-aged Children Survey and the Centers for Disease Control Youth Risk Behavior Survey. A 2 × 2 factorial ANCOVA was used to test the effects of gender (male vs. female) and/or age (adolescents vs. young adults) on the reported changes in physical activity and screen time before and during lockdown (covariate: BMI Z-score). Results: The majority of the cohort indicated less physical activity. Aerobic and muscle-strengthening type of exercises significantly decreased, and screen time increased during distance education. Male individuals showed a higher decrease in the level of aerobic exercise, and young adults reported a higher increase in the time spent in front of the screen.
Open Access: Yes
Effect of a five-week beta-alanine supplementation on the performance, cardio-respiratory system, and blood lactate level in well-trained rowing athletes: A double-blind randomized pre–post pilot study
Publication Name: Journal of Physical Education and Sport
Publication Date: 2020-09-01
Volume: 20
Issue: 5
Page Range: 2501-2507
Description:
Intense exercise by top-level athletes significantly lowers the pH of muscle and blood, which leads to fatigue. Beta-alanine (BA) supplementation can increase carnosine levels in skeletal muscle, which can delay a decrease in pH in the muscles. Previous studies have shown that multiple doses of BA supplementation were effective for people of different physical fitness and age. The purpose of this double-blind, randomized, controlled study is to investigate the effect of a five-week BA supplementation on well-trained, experienced rowing athletes at approximately the median dose of previous studies, which determined that 50 mg day−1 kg−1 of body weight was an effective daily dose. Two groups were formed in the spiroergometric study. One group received BA supplementation, while the control group did not. Five weeks after the first test (T1), the second test (T2) occurred, and the blood lactate levels were measured before and after the tests (Pre[La-]b ; Post[La-]b ). The maximum mean values of different physiological load parameters showed no significant difference. In the BA group, the mean lactate level was significantly lower after the T2 measurement (Post[La-]b ) compared to those of T1 (P = 0.01) and the control group, i.e., T1 (P = 0,008), T2 (P = 0,028). The mean time and performance of the second measurement of the BA group increased [T1 = 582,7 ± 88,2 (s); T2 = 636,4 ± 106,6 (s)] but the result is not significant. In summary, the five-week dose of 50 mg day−1 kg−1 of body weight, which is 3.845 day−1 for the group average, lowers the blood lactate levels after the tests (Post[La-]b ) but does not increase the athlete's performance. For well-trained athletes, during a five-week supplementation, it is not advisable to lover the value below 4–6 g day−1 with the dietary supplement to achieve an ergogenic effect.
Open Access: Yes
Quantifying the relationship between physical performance and mental wellbeing in older adults: a field study
Publication Name: Frontiers in Aging
Publication Date: 2025-01-01
Volume: 6
Issue: Unknown
Page Range: Unknown
Description:
Introduction: Although the relationship between functionality, as reflected in physical performance (PHP), and mental health in older adults has been researched, its strength remains unclear. Methods: This field study aimed to determine the strength of this relationship in adults aged 60 and above using seven PHP indices and six psychological measures. We individually tested 114 older adults. Objective measures included six PHP indices consisting of the Senior Test and handgrip strength. Subjective measures included resilience, wellbeing, happiness, perceived stress, hopelessness, and life satisfaction. Results: Structural equation modeling (SEM) revealed two latent constructs: PHP and mental wellbeing (MWB): robust fit (MLR): X2 (75) = 136.28, p < 0.001; CFI = 0.967; TLI = 0.960; RMSEA = 0.066 (90% CI [0.000, 0.128]); SRMR = 0.088. The latent partial correlation between PHP and MWB (adjusted for Age) was φ = 0.46, indicating ∼21% shared variance. The correlation between the two latent factors was moderate (r = 0.46), suggesting that other unassessed factors might account for the relationship. Discussion: Based on objective PHP and subjective MWB measures, these results suggest a modest connection, with the two latent constructs sharing ∼1/5 of their variances. Consequently, further research is needed to identify other factors affecting the studied relationship in older adults. These cross-sectional findings, suggesting a moderate association, should be interpreted with caution. Still, they support recommending physical activity as one component of broader, multi-domain strategies to support the wellbeing of older adults.
Open Access: Yes
Stress-Induced “Immediate” Lactate (iBLC) Response Differences in Pubertal and Young Adult Soccer Players
Publication Name: Sports
Publication Date: 2025-11-01
Volume: 13
Issue: 11
Page Range: Unknown
Description:
Background: High-intensity physical activity elicits acute physiological responses across the metabolic, cardiovascular, respiratory, endocrine, immune, and neuromuscular systems. During recovery, multiple processes act to restore homeostasis and functional capacity. The aim of this study was to examine age- and position-related differences in cardiovascular and metabolic responses among youth soccer players. Methods: A total of 147 male academy soccer players were assessed, divided into four age groups (U15, U16, U17, U18/U19) and four playing positions (defenders, midfielders, forwards, goalkeepers). Results: Significant anthropometric and physiological differences were observed between age groups. Body height and weight increased progressively with age (p < 0.05), while body fat percentage was lower in younger compared to older cohorts (p < 0.001). Relative muscle mass did not differ significantly between groups. Absolute aerobic capacity (VO2 max) was higher in U17–U19 compared to U15–U16 (p < 0.001). Heart rate at anaerobic threshold (HRAT) and maximal heart rate were greater in the younger groups (p ≤ 0.005). Immediate blood lactate (iBLC) and ΔiBLC were significantly higher in U15–U16 compared to U17–U19 (both p < 0.001). Position-specific analysis revealed higher iBLC in U15 defenders compared to U18/U19 defenders (p < 0.01), whereas no positional differences were observed in relative VO2 max. Conclusions: These results are due to a carefully designed training program and frequent individual training sessions.
Open Access: Yes
Exercise addiction revisited: From symptoms to treatment
Publication Name: Theory and Psychology
Publication Date: 2026-02-01
Volume: 36
Issue: 1
Page Range: 68-89
Description:
This paper critically examines “exercise addiction,” a form of dysfunctional exercise behavior often mischaracterized as “exercise dependence.” While dependence is part of addiction, compulsion plays an equally significant role. Unlike substance-based addictions, exercise addiction involves delayed gratification achieved through intense physical effort. It often includes a masochistic drive to uphold self-imposed personal standards or maintain a positive social image. This addiction presents unique symptoms and significant challenges in assessment, as evaluations among healthy exercisers only yield questionnaire-based “risk” scores. The rate at which such high-risk scores turn into morbidity is unknown. Thus, the literature can be misleading via an artificial connection between research-based risk scores and clinically problematic cases. Indeed, such cases typically surface in clinics, not research settings. This complex and diverging path between research endeavors and applied medicine hinders the gathering of robust evidence for exercise addiction being a mental dysfunction, which is the reason why it is currently not classified as a dysfunction in the DSM-5. This paper clarifies exercise addiction and presents evidence for problematic cases based on symptoms and areas of self-harm. Furthermore, the paper distinguishes between commitment and addiction to exercise, presenting the most common theoretical models for exercise addiction. Finally, the work forwards a hierarchical 10-stage treatment framework. Overall, the paper emphasizes the urgent need for close collaboration between researchers and clinicians to accurately classify and address this complex behavioral disorder.
Open Access: Yes
Primitive reflexes as behavioral biomarkers of cognitive aging: associations with physical activity and resilience—a pilot study
Publication Name: Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience
Publication Date: 2025-01-01
Volume: 17
Issue: Unknown
Page Range: Unknown
Description:
Introduction: Primitive reflexes (PRs) are brainstem-mediated automatic responses that typically disappear in early life, but may reappear in older age, which may be associated with neurodegenerative processes. But the presence of PRs in cognitively healthy adults has not yet been sufficiently explored. The relationship between PRs and cognitive functioning (COG) may be influenced by modifiable factors such as physical activity (PA) and psychological resilience. This cross-sectional observational pilot study aimed to investigate the mediating and moderating role of physical activity and resilience in the association between primitive reflexes and cognitive functioning in older adults. Methods: A total of 30 older adults (mean age 73.4 ± 6.9 years; 80% female) living in residential care facilities were assessed. PRs were evaluated using standardized neurological protocols, COG was measured with the Mini-Mental State Examination, PA with the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire, and resilience with the Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale. Moderation and mediation models were tested using Hayes’ PROCESS macro, controlling for age and BMI. Results: A higher number of primitive reflexes was strongly associated with lower cognitive functioning [COG (r = −0.904, p < 0.001)]. Physical activity showed a significant mediating effect in this association, indicating that more active older adults exhibited better cognitive performance despite the presence of primitive reflexes. Resilience, although correlated with both cognition and physical activity, did not show a mediating or moderating effect. Discussion: These findings highlight primitive reflexes as potential behavioral biomarkers of cognitive aging, and underscore the importance of physical activity as a protective factor that may buffer against neurocognitive decline.
Open Access: Yes
Long-Term Performance Trends and Benchmark Progression in Elite Men’s Swimming Across Five Olympic Cycles (2008–2028)
Publication Name: Applied Sciences Switzerland
Publication Date: 2026-03-01
Volume: 16
Issue: 5
Page Range: Unknown
Description:
Over the past two decades, Olympic swimming performance has improved. However, less attention has been given to the evolution of Olympic Qualification Time (OQT) standards. This retrospective observational study analyzed event-specific qualification standards for all male pool swimming events. Data were extracted from publicly available documents and competition reports. Descriptive statistics, percentage change calculations, Pearson correlation analysis, and paired-sample t-tests between Olympic cycles from 2008 to 2028 were performed. For 2028, the OQTs were defined as the 14th fastest entry time from the 2024 Olympic Games. Across all events, the mean cumulative reduction in OQTs between Beijing 2008 and Los Angeles 2028 was 2.86 ± 0.54%, corresponding to an average proportional decrease of 0.6% per Olympic cycle, with trend analysis confirming statistical significance (p < 0.001). Event-level analysis revealed the greatest tightening in the 100 m breaststroke (−3.74%) and 100 m butterfly (−3.25%). When grouped by distance, sprint events (50–100 m) showed the strongest overall tightening (−3.57%), followed by middle-distance (200–400 m, −2.08%) and long-distance (800–1500 m, −2.45%). When grouped by stroke, butterfly (−3.28%) and freestyle (−3.20%) showed the largest decrease, whereas individual medley (−2.29%) demonstrated the smallest decrease. A strong positive correlation was observed between OQT tightening and Olympic performance improvement across events (r = 0.74). These findings indicate that OQTs have become demanding and broadly aligned with elite performance progression, providing applied benchmarks for coaches and performance staff.
Open Access: Yes
DOI: 10.3390/app16052341
Anthropometric Determinants of Rowing Performance in a Multinational Youth Cohort
Publication Name: Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology
Publication Date: 2026-03-01
Volume: 11
Issue: 1
Page Range: Unknown
Description:
Background: Rowing performance in youth athletes is strongly influenced by anthropometric characteristics, body composition, and limb proportions; however, the combined contribution of these factors across developmental stages remains insufficiently understood. This study investigated the relationships between key anthropometric variables and ergometer performance in a multinational cohort of young rowers. Methods: A total of 194 athletes (48 females, 146 males) from ten countries participated. Based on age and sex, participants were categorized into junior female (JF), junior male (JM), adult female (AF), and adult male (AM) groups. Body height, body mass, body fat (F%), relative muscle mass (M%), limb lengths, and body surface area (BSA) were measured. Rowing performance was assessed via maximal 2000 m ergometer trials. Results: Males outperformed females across all age groups (p < 0.001). Performance showed strong positive correlations with body height (r = 0.673, p = 0.003), body mass (r = 0.724, p = 0.005), arm span (r = 0.681, p = 0.002), lower-limb length (r = 0.394, p = 0.004), relative muscle mass (39.9 ± 5.2%; r = 0.531, p < 0.001), and especially BSA (1.94 ± 0.19 m2; r = 0.739, p < 0.001). Relative body fat was negatively associated with performance (17.6 ± 6.9%; r = −0.465, p < 0.001). Conclusions: Findings indicate that rowing performance in youth athletes reflects multidimensional anthropometric configurations rather than isolated traits, characterized primarily by the combined contribution of body surface area, relative muscle mass, and segmental body dimensions. From a practical perspective, higher-performing athletes typically exhibited body surface area values approaching or exceeding ~1.90 m2 and relative muscle mass above ~40%, suggesting these ranges as indicative reference benchmarks rather than fixed selection thresholds. Integrating anthropometric profiling with physiological assessment may enhance early talent identification and support individualized training strategies in competitive youth rowing.
Open Access: Yes
DOI: 10.3390/jfmk11010039
Differences in Physical Performance and Body Composition Between National and Non-National Youth Female Handball Players
Publication Name: Sports
Publication Date: 2026-03-01
Volume: 14
Issue: 3
Page Range: Unknown
Description:
Performance differences between female youth handball players selected for national teams and non-selected peers are often linked to strength, speed, and power. This study aimed to compare the conditioning capacities and body composition of national and non-national youth handball players. The sample included 36 female players (17.13 ± 1.75 years), 18 national and 18 position-matched non-national players. Anthropometry, sprint and change in direction ability, vertical jump, upper- and lower-body strength, aerobic capacity, and body composition were assessed using standard tests and bioimpedance analysis. For normally distributed variables, an independent-samples t-test was applied, while for variables that did not meet the normality assumptions, the Mann–Whitney U test was used. Cohen’s d was used to assess effect size. National team players showed significantly greater jump height (p < 0.001, d = 1.408), higher relative peak power (p < 0.001, d = 1.644), and faster 20 m sprint times (p = 0.004, d = −1.037). No significant differences were found in body composition or the other measured parameters, although a moderate Yo-Yo IRL1 effect size suggests a potential practical advantage in aerobic capacity for national team players. These results indicate that explosive power and linear speed are key discriminators for youth national-team selection.
Open Access: Yes
Seasonal Analysis of Match External Load in Hungarian Second-Division Professional Football Across Three Competitive Seasons Using GPS-Derived Match-Average Data
Publication Name: Sports
Publication Date: 2026-04-01
Volume: 14
Issue: 4
Page Range: Unknown
Description:
Background/Objectives: The aim of this study was to describe seasonal trends in match-average External Load (EL) variables across three (2022/23, 2023/24, 2024/25) consecutive competitive seasons in a Hungarian professional second-division soccer team (Gyirmót FC Győr), using the Catapult Vector S7 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). Specifically, Average Distance (AD; m), Average Player LoadTM (PL; AU), and Acceleration–Deceleration Efforts (>2 m·s−2) (ADE) were examined. The study aimed to provide descriptive reference values and characterize seasonal variation in match EL demands within a professional second-division context. Methods: A descriptive seasonal comparison was conducted based exclusively on aggregated match average EL values. The unit of analysis was the match, with each match contributing one aggregated value per variable derived from players who completed the full match. A total of 94 matches were included (2022/23: N = 38; 2023/24: N = 29; 2024/25: N = 27); matches with red cards were excluded. EL data were collected using a 10 Hz Catapult Vector S7 GNSS. Results: The median AD decreased continuously from the 2022/23 season (10.210 m) to the 2024/25 season (9.795 m). The median PL decreased from 1002 (2022/23 and 2023/24) to 846 in the 2024/25 season. The median ADE decreased from 220.8 (2022/23) to 199.0 (2024/25). Conclusions: Lower values were observed across match EL variables, with the most pronounced reduction in PL. These findings provide descriptive reference values and may support the interpretation of seasonal variation in match EL demands in professional second-division soccer.
Open Access: Yes
Psychophysiological measures of a SuperEnduro athlete during a world championship: an in-situ case study
Publication Name: Frontiers in Psychology
Publication Date: 2026-03-31
Volume: 17
Issue: Unknown
Page Range: Unknown
Description:
Introduction – SuperEnduro is a high-risk motorcycle sport with no prior empirical data. This case study analyzed an elite rider during the fifth round of the 2023/2024 SuperEnduro Grand Prix. Methods – Psychological measures included core-, positive-, and negative affect, expected and perceived performance, mental and physical exhaustion, perceived risk of racing addiction, and a post-race interview. Physiological measures encompassed heart rate, caloric expenditure, work intensity, and training loads. Results – Results showed a decline in core affect, with positive affect remaining high and negative affect low after three races. Anxiety decreased progressively, but perceived and objective performance remained low. Elevated physiological measures and subjective perceptions confirmed SuperEnduro’s intensity. The participant self-identified himself as addicted to racing. However, his addiction score was low, suggesting passion or emotional attachment—a blend of pleasure and pain—driving his commitment to race even when injured. Discussion – These findings provide insight into the physical and psychological demands unique to SuperEnduro athletes.
Open Access: Yes
Aerobic Capacity, Body Composition, and Ventilatory Thresholds in Youth Endurance Athletes: Physiological Characteristics of Hungarian Junior Triathletes
Publication Name: Applied Sciences Switzerland
Publication Date: 2026-05-01
Volume: 16
Issue: 9
Page Range: Unknown
Description:
Limited data are available regarding the physiological profile of youth triathletes. The aim of this study was to characterize the physiological and body composition profile of Hungarian youth triathletes and to examine the relationships between anthropometric characteristics and aerobic performance indicators. Forty-one youth triathletes (20 females and 21 males; age: 15.8 ± 1.7 years), members of the Hungarian national development squad, participated in the study. Anthropometric and body composition parameters were assessed using standardized procedures and multi-frequency bioelectrical impedance analysis. Aerobic performance was evaluated using a graded cardiopulmonary exercise test on a treadmill with breath-by-breath gas analysis. Male athletes demonstrated higher body height, body mass, fat-free mass, and skeletal muscle mass compared with females (p < 0.05). Cardiopulmonary exercise testing revealed high aerobic capacity, with mean VO2 max values of 73.2 ± 5.4 mL·kg−1·min−1 in males and 63.1 ± 5.0 mL·kg−1·min−1 in females. The second ventilatory threshold occurred at approximately 82–86% of VO2 max. Strong positive correlations were observed between anthropometric parameters and absolute oxygen uptake (mL·min−1), particularly for fat-free mass, skeletal muscle mass, and body surface area (r = 0.83–0.95). However, these relationships are influenced by body size and were weaker or inverse when relative oxygen uptake (mL·kg−1·min−1) was considered. Regression analyses further indicated that body composition variables, especially fat-free mass and skeletal muscle mass, were positively associated with aerobic performance, while body fat percentage was not a significant predictor when body size and sex were controlled. These findings are based on cross-sectional associations and should be interpreted as descriptive reference data for this population rather than predictive criteria. The results contribute to the characterization of physiological and anthropometric profiles in youth triathletes and may support future research and athlete monitoring.
Open Access: Yes
DOI: 10.3390/app16094449
