I. Fekete

39461254700

Publications - 19

Effect of filament humidity on the properties of material extrusion 3D-printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene/hexagonal boron nitride composites

I. Fekete László Lendvai Daniele Rigotti Sándor K. Jakab Alessandro Pegoretti

Publication Name: Emergent Materials

Publication Date: 2025-01-01

Volume: Unknown

Issue: Unknown

Page Range: Unknown

Description:

This study investigates the effect of filament moisture content on material extrusion (MEX) 3D-printed composites using acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) as the polymer matrix and 0–10 vol% hexagonal boron nitride (BN) as reinforcement. ABS/BN composites were prepared through batchwise compounding and extruded into MEX-suitable filaments. The filaments were conditioned at 30 °C and 10% or 90% relative humidity (RH) before/during direct feeding into the 3D printer. Specimens were fabricated with raster angles parallel (0°) and perpendicular (90°) to their length. Micro- and macrostructural analyses using scanning electron microscopy and computed tomography revealed intensive void formation, especially in BN-filled composites 3D-printed from humid filaments. This was attributed to BN acting as a physical barrier, hindering the outgassing of evaporated water during 3D printing. Mechanical properties were evaluated using tensile and Charpy impact tests. Based on the tensile test results, neat ABS was the least sensitive to filament moisture, with tensile strength at 0° raster angle dropping from 40.5 MPa to 36.7 MPa as storage RH was increased from 10 to 90%. For composites with 10 vol% BN loading, tensile strength dropped from 34.1 MPa to 22.3 MPa. Charpy impact strength exhibited similar reductions, ascribed to the porous structure of the BN-filled composites caused by the evaporated moisture. Thermal conductivity was also examined, showing slightly superior performance for samples 3D-printed from filaments stored in less humid conditions. For unfilled ABS, the conductivity slightly decreased from 0.188 to 0.185 W/mK, while for 10 vol% BN-filled composite, it dropped from 0.778 to 0.617 W/mK.

Open Access: Yes

DOI: 10.1007/s42247-025-01108-6

Experimental study on the effect of filament-extrusion rate on the structural, mechanical and thermal properties of material extrusion 3D-printed polylactic acid (PLA) products

I. Fekete László Lendvai Daniele Rigotti Alessandro Pegoretti

Publication Name: Progress in Additive Manufacturing

Publication Date: 2025-01-01

Volume: 10

Issue: 1

Page Range: 619-629

Description:

Material extrusion (MEX), also commonly referred to as fused deposition modeling (FDM) or fused filament fabrication (FFF) is currently one of the most commonly used additive manufacturing techniques. The quality of the 3D-printed objects fabricated by MEX methods highly relies on various printing parameters, one of which is the so-called filament extrusion multiplier (k). In this study, 3D-printed parts were prepared by MEX technique during which the material feeding rate was adjusted by varying the extrusion multiplier in the range of 97–105% (k = 0.97–1.05). The fabricated parts were tested for their geometrical, structural, mechanical, and thermal conductivity properties. Based on computed tomographic analysis and scanning electron microscopic images, increasing the k parameter resulted in smaller voids, along with gradually decreasing porosity (from 5.82 to 0.05%). Parallel to the decreasing defects, the thermal conductivity of the parts improved from 0.157 to 0.188 W/mK as determined by light-flash analysis technique. On the other hand, when k was set to ≥ 1.03 the geometrical accuracy declined, the size of the specimens considerably increased relative to the nominal values, especially in the X–Y directions due to excess material getting “squeezed” on the sides of the specimens. This latter phenomenon also resulted in the formation of a number of stress concentration sites, which manifested in the decrease of mechanical properties. Accordingly, the tensile, flexural, and impact strength of the samples improved up to k = 1.03; however, above that it dropped considerably.

Open Access: Yes

DOI: 10.1007/s40964-024-00646-5

Influence of environmental humidity during filament storage on the structural and mechanical properties of material extrusion 3D-printed poly(lactic acid) parts

I. Fekete Klára Verebélyi Györgyi Szarka László Lendvai Sándor K. Jakab Béla Iván

Publication Name: Results in Engineering

Publication Date: 2024-12-01

Volume: 24

Issue: Unknown

Page Range: Unknown

Description:

Material extrusion (MEX) is one of the most widely used additive manufacturing techniques these days. This study investigates how the properties of MEX 3D-printed objects depend on the relative humidity (RH) conditions in which filaments are stored before and during the manufacturing process. Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) filament was drawn directly from a humidity-controlled chamber into the MEX 3D printer's nozzle. For each set of samples, the filaments were conditioned under different RH conditions, ranging from 10 % to 90 %. The macrostructure of the fabricated products was characterized using computed tomography, revealing increased porosity at higher RH values (from 0.84 % to 4.42 %). The increased porosity at higher storage RH is attributed to under-extrusion and volatile entrapment due to excess moisture. With growing storage RH, the melt flow rate of PLA also gradually increased, indicating a plasticizing effect of humidity on the biopolymer. Gel permeation chromatography and differential scanning calorimetry analyses were conducted to determine whether hydrolytic chain scission took place when PLA was processed in the presence of excessive moisture. Neither measurement indicated any considerable alteration in molecular integrity and crystalline structure as a function of storage RH. Mechanical tests, however, revealed a reduced load-bearing capacity of the manufactured PLA specimens. Flexural strength decreased from 103.0 to 99.6 MPa, and the impact strength dropped from 18.2 to 16.2 kJ/m2, which is ascribed to the increasing size of pores inside the specimens with increasing storage RH. These findings should be taken into account when designing and processing PLA products by MEX-based additive manufacturing.

Open Access: Yes

DOI: 10.1016/j.rineng.2024.103013

Selection of straw waste reinforced sustainable polymer composite using a multi-criteria decision-making approach

I. Fekete László Lendvai Tej Singh Sándor K. Jakab

Publication Name: Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery

Publication Date: 2024-09-01

Volume: 14

Issue: 17

Page Range: 21007-21017

Description:

The valorization of straw waste as a sustainable and eco-friendly resource in polymer composites is critical for resource recycling and environmental preservation. Therefore, many research works are being carried out regarding the development of wheat straw-based polymer composites to identify the reinforcing potential of these sustainable resources. In this study, three different sizes of wheat straw fibers (60–120 mesh, 35–60 mesh, and 18–35 mesh) were used, and their different ratios (0, 2.5, 5, 10, and 20% by weight) were systematically investigated for the physical and mechanical properties of polypropylene-based sustainable composites. The results indicated that the evaluated composites’ properties are strongly dependent on the quantity and size of the utilized wheat straw. Therefore, a preference selection index was applied to rank the developed sustainable polymer composites to select the best composition. Various properties of the composite materials were considered as criteria for ranking the alternatives, namely tensile strength and modulus, flexural stress at conventional deflection and flexural modulus, impact strength, density, water absorption, material cost, and carbon footprint. The decision-making analysis suggests the alternative with wheat straw content of 20 wt.% (35–60 mesh size) dominating the performance by maximizing the beneficial criteria and minimizing the non-beneficial criteria, making it the most suitable alternative. This study will significantly help formulation designers to deal with the amount and size issues when developing polymeric composites.

Open Access: Yes

DOI: 10.1007/s13399-023-04132-w

Effect of Energy Density on the Mechanical Properties of 1.2709 Maraging Steel Produced by Laser Powder Bed Fusion

I. Fekete Gusztáv Fekete István Hatos H. Hargitai

Publication Name: Materials

Publication Date: 2024-07-01

Volume: 17

Issue: 14

Page Range: Unknown

Description:

The unusual combination of the fundamentally contradictory properties of high tensile strength and high fracture toughness found in maraging steel makes it well suited for safety-critical applications that require high strength-to-weight materials. In certain instances, additive manufacturing (AM) has produced materials that may be desirable for safety-critical applications where impact toughness is a key property, such as structural parts for the aerospace industry or armor plates for military applications. Understanding the influence of process parameters and defect structure on the properties of maraging steel parts produced via laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) is a fundamental step towards the broader use of AM technologies for more demanding applications. In this research, the impact energy of V-notched specimens made of 1.2709 maraging steel produced by LPBF was determined via Charpy impact testing. Specimens were produced using different processing parameter sets. By combining the process parameters with the porosity values of the parts, we demonstrate that an almost full prediction of the impact properties can be achieved, paving the way for significantly reducing the expenses of destructive testing.

Open Access: Yes

DOI: 10.3390/ma17143432

Agricultural by-product filled poly(lactic acid) biocomposites with enhanced biodegradability: The effect of flax seed meal and rapeseed straw

I. Fekete László Lendvai Tej Singh Sándor K. Jakab

Publication Name: Composites Part C Open Access

Publication Date: 2024-07-01

Volume: 14

Issue: Unknown

Page Range: Unknown

Description:

The purpose of this research was to develop “green” materials by combining poly(lactic acid) (PLA) with two agricultural by-products, namely flax seed meal (FSM) and rapeseed straw (RSS). The natural fillers (0–20 wt.%) were mixed with PLA through extrusion and then injection molded into specimens. The samples were analyzed for their thermal, morphological, mechanical, and physical features and biodegradability. Thermal properties and crystallinity were analyzed using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), while the morphology was investigated by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Mechanical properties were characterized through tensile, flexural, and impact measurements, while surface hardness was evaluated by Shore D tests. Water absorption and biodegradability of the samples were also examined. DSC measurements revealed a nucleating effect of both bio-fillers. Based on the tensile tests, major improvement in stiffness was found with the biocomposites having up to ∼16 % higher Young's modulus than neat PLA (2.5 GPa). It came, however, at the cost of tensile strength, which decreased from 56 to 51 MPa even in the presence of the lowest amount (2.5 wt.%) of FSM. Loss in strength was due to the limited adhesion between the components, as also supported by SEM images. The hardness slightly (1–2 %) improved in the presence of even 2.5 wt.% bio-filler and it remained at that level at higher filler loading as well. Laboratory-scale composting revealed that both fillers facilitated biodegradation with FSM being superior. In the presence of 10–20 wt.% FSM, the rate of decomposition was found to be twice as fast compared to neat PLA.

Open Access: Yes

DOI: 10.1016/j.jcomc.2024.100464

Laboratory and Numerical Investigation of Pre-Tensioned Reinforced Concrete Railway Sleepers Combined with Plastic Fiber Reinforcement

Szabolcs Fischer Mykola Sysyn Zoltán Major Sarah Khaleel Ibrahim Dmytro Kurhan Vivien Jóvér Szabolcs Szalai Hanna Csótár Klaudia Madarász András Pollák Dániel Harrach Bálint Molnár L. Gaspar Bence Hermán Szabolcs Kocsis Szurke Attila Németh I. Fekete Richárd Nagy Gusztáv Baranyai Miklós Kuczmann M. Movahedi Rad

Publication Name: Polymers

Publication Date: 2024-06-01

Volume: 16

Issue: 11

Page Range: Unknown

Description:

This research investigates the application of plastic fiber reinforcement in pre-tensioned reinforced concrete railway sleepers, conducting an in-depth examination in both experimental and computational aspects. Utilizing 3-point bending tests and the GOM ARAMIS system for Digital Image Correlation, this study meticulously evaluates the structural responses and crack development in conventional and plastic fiber-reinforced sleepers under varying bending moments. Complementing these tests, the investigation employs ABAQUS’ advanced finite element modeling to enhance the analysis, ensuring precise calibration and validation of the numerical models. This dual approach comprehensively explains the mechanical behavior differences and stresses within the examined structures. The incorporation of plastic fibers not only demonstrates a significant improvement in mechanical strength and crack resistance but paves the way for advancements in railway sleeper technology. By shedding light on the enhanced durability and performance of reinforced concrete structures, this study makes a significant contribution to civil engineering materials science, highlighting the potential for innovative material applications in the construction industry.

Open Access: Yes

DOI: 10.3390/polym16111498

Foam Injection Molding of Poly(Lactic Acid) with Azodicarbonamide-Based Chemical Blowing Agent †

I. Fekete László Lendvai Sándor K. Jakab G. Dogossy

Publication Name: Engineering Proceedings

Publication Date: 2024-01-01

Volume: 79

Issue: 1

Page Range: Unknown

Description:

In this study, poly(lactic acid) (PLA)-based biopolymer foams were prepared through injection molding using the high-pressure foam injection molding method, also referred to as “breathing mold” technique, with the addition of various amounts (0, 1, 2, and 4 wt.%) of azodicarbonamide-based chemical blowing agent (CBA). The prepared samples were analyzed for their macrostructure using computed tomography (CT) while the mechanical properties were determined by flexural and Charpy impact tests. CT analysis revealed a finer foam cell structure and decreasing shell thickness with increasing CBA content. Regarding the mechanical properties, the specific flexural strength and flexural modulus of PLA were improved as a result of foaming; however, this improvement came at the cost of a slight deterioration in impact strength.

Open Access: Yes

DOI: 10.3390/engproc2024079044

Examination of Concrete Canvas under Quasi-Realistic Loading by Computed Tomography

Szabolcs Fischer I. Fekete Szabolcs Szalai Mykola Sysyn Dmytro Kurhan M. Movahedi Rad Dániel Harrach B. Eller Gusztáv Baranyai

Publication Name: Infrastructures

Publication Date: 2023-02-01

Volume: 8

Issue: 2

Page Range: Unknown

Description:

The current paper concerns the investigation of CC (Concrete Canvas), a unique building material from the GCCM (geosynthetic cementitious composite mat) product group. The material is suitable for trench lining, trench paving, or even military construction activities, while the authors’ purpose is to investigate the application of the material to road and railway substructure improvement. This research was carried out to verify the material’s suitability for transport infrastructure and its beneficial effects. The authors’ previous study reported that the primary measurements were puncture, compression, and the parameters evaluated in four-point bending (laboratory) tests. However, based on the results, finite element modeling was not feasible because the testing of the composite material in a single layer did not provide an accurate indication. For this reason, the material characteristics required for modeling were investigated. A unique, novel testing procedure and assembly were performed, wherein the material was loaded under quasi-realistic conditions with a crushed stone ballast sample and other continuous particle size distribution samples in a closed polyethylene tube. In addition, the deformation of the material following deformed bonding was measured by computed tomography scanning, and the results were evaluated.

Open Access: Yes

DOI: 10.3390/infrastructures8020023

Laser powder bed fusion and casting for an advanced hybrid prototype mold

Martin Zobač I. Fekete J. G. Kovács B. Zink István Hatos Dániel Török Tatyana Ageyeva Róbert Boros H. Hargitai

Publication Name: Journal of Manufacturing Processes

Publication Date: 2022-09-01

Volume: 81

Issue: Unknown

Page Range: 748-758

Description:

One of the factors limiting the throughput of injection molding is cooling time, which is the most significant part of the total cycle time. The cooling efficiency of molds can be considerably improved with additive manufacturing techniques. A 3D printed injection mold with conformal cooling channels reduces cooling time by 30–40 %. However, the cooling efficiency of these molds can be further improved with a multi-material approach and the use of materials with excellent thermal and mechanical properties. In this study, we propose a hybrid mold insert made of steel and copper, produced with the combination of Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF) and casting. The steel shell that contains conformal cooling channels was printed by L-PBF. Then this shell was cast with copper. We found that the hybrid mold insert we developed has lower residual cooling time and heat extraction is more uniform than the conventional printed steel insert. The developed hybrid mold insert enables a reduction of residual cooling time by 15 %.

Open Access: Yes

DOI: 10.1016/j.jmapro.2022.07.034

Highly toughened blends of poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and natural rubber (NR) for FDM-based 3D printing applications: The effect of composition and infill pattern

F. Ronkay I. Fekete László Lendvai

Publication Name: Polymer Testing

Publication Date: 2021-07-01

Volume: 99

Issue: Unknown

Page Range: Unknown

Description:

In this study, the suitability of natural rubber (NR) toughened poly(lactic acid) (PLA)-based blends were investigated for additive manufacturing applications. Filaments for fused deposition modeling (FDM) were prepared with an NR concentration of 0 … 20 wt% using a twin-screw extruder. Subsequently, specimens were fabricated with a desktop 3D printer machine working on FDM principles. Besides the composition of PLA/NR blends, the effect of infill orientation was also analyzed by preparing two sets of specimens: i) one set prepared with an alternating raster angle of ±45° (3DGRID) and ii) another one with a linear infill parallel to the length of the specimens (3DPAR). Quasi-static and dynamic mechanical properties, morphology and thermal characteristics of the fabricated specimens were investigated. The tensile tests revealed that the presence of NR effectively enhances the ductility of PLA filaments, however, the achieved improvement was highly dependent on the applied infill pattern. Samples prepared using the 3DPAR infill exhibited an excellent deformability when paired with NR. On the other hand, the ones fabricated with the 3DGRID technique only showed a marginal improvement in elongation. Similarly, the Charpy impact tests indicated an outstanding impact resistance of NR-toughened 3DPAR specimens, while the 3DGRID types showed little to no improvement. Scanning electron microscopic analysis revealed a weaker interlayer adhesion in the specimens containing NR, which greatly contributed to the discrepancies observed between the mechanical properties of the samples prepared with different infill. The differential scanning calorimetry revealed an almost completely amorphous structure of 3D printed PLA due to the quite rapid cooling characteristic of the FDM technique, which was not affected by the embedded NR component.

Open Access: Yes

DOI: 10.1016/j.polymertesting.2021.107205

Preparation and characterization of poly(lactic acid)/boehmite alumina composites for additive manufacturing

I. Fekete László Lendvai

Publication Name: Iop Conference Series Materials Science and Engineering

Publication Date: 2020-08-25

Volume: 903

Issue: 1

Page Range: Unknown

Description:

The purpose of this work is to investigate the suitability of boehmite alumina (BA) reinforced poly(lactic acid) (PLA) for additive manufacturing with the fused filament fabrication method. PLA filaments with 0-10 wt.% BA content were produced via melt compounding using a twin-screw extruder. Dumbbell-shaped and prismatic specimens were manufactured then by feeding the prepared filaments into a desktop 3D printer. Mechanical, morphological and melt flow properties of the developed samples were determined. The addition of BA decreased the melt flow rate of PLA, however not so much that it would have hindered its suitability for 3D printing. With increasing BA content both the strength and the stiffness of the samples increased slightly at constant deformability and toughness. Scanning electron microscopic images revealed a homogenous dispersion of BA particles within the PLA matrix, although remaining agglomerates were also observed.

Open Access: Yes

DOI: 10.1088/1757-899X/903/1/012057

Metallographic and magnetic analysis of direct laser sintered soft magnetic composites

I. Fekete L. K. Varga B. Kocsis

Publication Name: Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials

Publication Date: 2020-05-01

Volume: 501

Issue: Unknown

Page Range: Unknown

Description:

In this present study, soft magnetic composite samples were made from iron-silicon alloys. For the purpose of optimizing 3D printing parameters, preliminary experiments were performed. Metallographic and computed tomography investigations were used to determine the appropriate sintering settings. Besides the microscopic and CT analysis, considering the permeability spectra have been compared to the samples.

Open Access: Yes

DOI: 10.1016/j.jmmm.2020.166425

Influence of local porosity on the mechanical properties of direct metal laser-sintered 1.2709 alloy

I. Fekete István Hatos Dóra Harangozó H. Hargitai

Publication Name: Strojniski Vestnik Journal of Mechanical Engineering

Publication Date: 2020-01-01

Volume: 66

Issue: 6

Page Range: 351-357

Description:

Powder bed metal printing has demonstrated its potential for the direct manufacturing of complex parts. It has great flexibility compared to conventional manufacturing. There are also some difficulties and problems, e.g., because the process stops during production. When the process is restarted, the first layer may be thicker due to technological limitations. In this paper, the effects caused by the presence of these thicker layers were investigated. The possibility of re-melting the layers to reduce porosity were also analysed. A tool steel powder grade 1.2709 was used to produce samples with an increased thickness of melted layers.

Open Access: Yes

DOI: 10.5545/sv-jme.2020.6573

Soft Magnetic Composites Prepared by 3D Laser Printing

I. Fekete L. K. Varga István Hatos B. Kocsis

Publication Name: Acta Physica Polonica A

Publication Date: 2020-01-01

Volume: 137

Issue: 5

Page Range: 886-888

Description:

In this study, iron and inorganic insulator powders have been used for preparing soft magnetic metal-insulator type composites by 3D laser printing. These samples have been compared with those obtained by traditional pressing and sintering method. Considering the permeability spectra, an increase of the frequency limit has been found for the laser printed samples. In addition to the AC and DC magnetic parameters, the results of XRD and SEM investigations are also presented.

Open Access: Yes

DOI: 10.12693/APhysPolA.137.886

Effect of locally increased melted layer thickness on the mechanical properties of laser sintered tool steel parts

I. Fekete T. Ibriksz István Hatos András Lajos Nagy B. Kocsis H. Hargitai

Publication Name: Iop Conference Series Materials Science and Engineering

Publication Date: 2018-10-18

Volume: 426

Issue: 1

Page Range: Unknown

Description:

Additive technologies have several advantages over conventional manufacturing, such as the freedom of geometry of the products and internal structures. There are also some limitations and problems, deriving from stopping the process during the production. By restarting the process, the building often continues with a thicker starting layer due to the deposition of two or more layers. The effect of skipped melting of layers is investigated in this paper. Maraging steel powder (MS1) was used in direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) process to produce samples with increased thickness of melted layers. The layer thickness was increased in 20 μm steps up to 160 μm with 0.5 mm offset between the increased thickness layers. Porosity caused by the uneven melting was measured by optical microscope, mechanical tests were carried out to quantify the effect of skipped layers and fractured surfaces were observed under SEM. We have found that the yield strength and tensile strength are not affected if the layer thickness is slightly increased locally in the laser sintered part, while even a small increase in porosity greatly reduces the total elongation of the specimen. The decrease of impact energy due to the porosities shows similar correlation with the decrease of percentage elongation at break. However, the Charpy impact test is much more sensitive to layer skipping, the lack of melted layers lowers the impact strength significantly.

Open Access: Yes

DOI: 10.1088/1757-899X/426/1/012014

Surface modification and wear properties of direct metal laser sintered hybrid tools used in moulds

I. Fekete J. G. Kovács T. Ibriksz Mária B. Maros István Hatos H. Hargitai

Publication Name: Journal of Mechanical Engineering

Publication Date: 2018-01-01

Volume: 64

Issue: 2

Page Range: 121-129

Description:

Injection moulding is one of the most productive plastic forming processes. Product development and the reduction of production time require new solutions in tooling design and manufacturing. Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) allows moulds to be built with special cooling systems, which offer curved cooling lines that can follow the geometry of the part (conformal cooling). One disadvantage of DMLS, its high cost, can be dramatically reduced with the building of hybrid structures. With conventional tool steels as the base plate and only the special geometry of the part sintered on the top, the final geometry can be manufactured after sintering by conventional process technologies. We produced hybrid structures by direct metal laser sintering maraging steel (MS1) powder onto the surface of commercial mould steels and studied the effect of different heat treatments on porosity, tribological behaviour and the microstructure. The transition zone was also characterized.

Open Access: Yes

DOI: 10.5545/sv-jme.2017.4942

Failure analysis of aluminum - Ceramic composites

I. Fekete I. Zsoldos I. Kozma

Publication Name: Materials Science Forum

Publication Date: 2017-01-01

Volume: 885

Issue: Unknown

Page Range: 286-291

Description:

The increasingly widespread use of syntactic metal foams is due to their excellent energy absorbing characteristics. Several research groups deal with developing methods that can further improve this characteristic. Several literature analyses have been devoted to the effects of materials selection, cell size and wall thickness of the reinforcing element on the compression strength. In this work an in situ test necessary for the modeling of the failure process introduced. The aluminumceramic composite foams were cyclically upset. The geometry of the test specimen was reconstructed at a certain point of the compression test by μCT technology and digital image analysis. The failure process was characterized by volume change, by the number of broken shells and by the formation of shear plane as a function of the deformation.

Open Access: Yes

DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.885.286

CT based analysis of reworked BGA devices

I. Fekete I. Kozma R. Csontos

Publication Name: 21st Imeko TC 4 International Symposium on Understanding the World Through Electrical and Electronic Measurement and 19th International Workshop on ADC Modelling and Testing

Publication Date: 2016-01-01

Volume: Unknown

Issue: Unknown

Page Range: 288-292

Description:

The widespread use of computed tomography in the electronic field allows for an extended range of measurements to be carried out. High integration devices can be tested easily with μCT, and provide large amount of data to characterize the technology parameters. This paper focuses on the inspection of BGA solder ball geometry and quantification of different properties of the solder arrays.

Open Access: Yes

DOI: DOI not available